Novel peptides and their use in diagnosis

ABSTRACT

There is provided novel peptides for use in diagnosis of CagA+ H. pylori infection or the prediction of risk for gastric cancer. The peptides bind antibodies from CagA+ H. pylori patients with high specificity and sensitivity, and can be used for example in a diagnostic kit.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to novel peptides from the CagA protein of Helicobacter pylori. The peptides can be used for improved prevention, diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infection and assessment of gastric cancer risk.

BACKGROUND

Helicobacter pylori is a bacterium usually found in the stomach. Some H. pylori strains carry the CagA (cytotoxicity-associated antigen A) gene which encodes for a virulence factor. The CagA gene encodes the 1140 to 1180-amino acid protein CagA which is a bacterial oncoprotein that is translocated into stomach epithelial cells at the site of infection. Upon translocation, it affects intracellular signalling pathways of the epithelial cell.

H. pylori bacteria carrying the CagA gene are associated with increased risk for gastric cancer development, and presence of anti-CagA-antibodies is associated with increased future gastric cancer risk. Early detection of CagA+ H. pylori infection can lead to increased cancer survival, as eradication of infection in infected individuals reduces gastric cancer risk. Therefore, a method that identifies individuals carrying CagA+ H. pylori can be used to diagnose high gastric cancer risk, and thereby assist prevention of gastric cancer development.

However, existing serology methods for CagA+ H. pylori infections are not clinically useful, mainly because they are not specific enough. There are high levels of false-positive samples indicating widespread antibody reactivity to CagA even in individuals not infected with H. pylori, or in individuals infected with a H. pylori strain lacking CagA. Thus, specificity and sensitivity has not been sufficient for a clinically useful diagnostic test (Yamaoka et al, J Clin Microbiol 1998:36:3433; Yamaoka et al, Gastroenterology 1999:117:745; Figueiredo et al, J Clin Microbiol 2001:39:1339).

Therefore, there is a need for a diagnostic test for CagA+ H. pylori with improved diagnostic properties, for example improved specificity and sensitivity.

Furthermore, there is a great variability in the DNA-sequences among different H. pylori isolates. Certain CagA-variants are more strongly associated to gastric cancer risk. Therefore, it would also be useful to be able to identify the CagA strain type.

There is also a need for CagA-peptides that bind specifically to antibodies, in particular antibodies that bind to the CagA protein.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

Herein it is provided information about peptides from CagA that are useful for diagnostic applications related to H. pylori-associated disease, including identification of individuals at high risk of gastric cancer development. H. pylori-infected individuals will raise antibodies against H. pylori proteins, including CagA. Thus, the presence of CagA-specific antibodies indicates H. pylori infection.

From all CagA peptides present in infected individuals, we have 1) defined which subset that is immunogenic and elicits an antibody-response (see Table 1, where 34% of the length of the protein is immunogenic). It turned out that many peptides react also with serum from non-infected patients (white bars in FIG. 1). Within the subset of immunogenic peptides, we have identified 2) the smaller subset of peptides that has a diagnostic capacity; and finally, in this subset of diagnostic peptides, we have 3) identified the crucial amino acid sequence(s) common to the peptides having the highest diagnostics capacity. In other words, the diagnostic capacity does not stem from only the presence/absence of peptides in the infected individual, but crucially also from only a small subset of the immunogenic peptides consistently eliciting an antibody-response that is absent in non-infected individuals.

By utilizing high-precision serology, with resolution at the peptide level instead of at protein level, we identified peptides to which there is a strong antibody-response only in individuals carrying CagA+ H. pylori, while excluding peptides that cause false positives due to a cross-reactive antibody-response in individuals lacking a CagA+ H. pylori infection. Therefore, the diagnostic peptides we have identified have both high sensitivity and specificity as determined by ROC AUC values, and will be useful for diagnostic applications.

In a first aspect of the invention there is provided a peptide comprising or consisting of an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 7. Preferably said peptide consists of at most 25 amino acids, more preferably 15 amino acids and even more preferred at most 10 amino acids. In a preferred embodiment the peptide comprises or consists of the sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO 2-7, or even more preferred the group consisting of SEQ ID NO 2-5.

These novel peptides have the advantage that they can be used for diagnosis, more specifically diagnosis of CagA-positive H. pylori. Thus, diagnosis using these peptides results in few false positives.

The minimal binding regions that have been identified are also useful for detecting CagA-specific antibodies. Since they are short, there will be low background binding. Furthermore, the peptides are short and can therefore be manufactured at a low cost.

In a second aspect of the invention there is provided a peptide according to the first aspect of the invention for use in diagnosis. In a preferred embodiment the diagnosis is diagnosis of H. pylori infection, more specifically CagA-positive H. pylori, or for prediction of the risk for gastric cancer.

In a third aspect of the invention there is provided a kit comprising a peptide according to the first aspect of the invention or a mixture of peptides according to the second aspect of the invention. The kit is preferably a kit for diagnosis, more specifically diagnosis of CagA-positive H. pylori, or for prediction of the risk for gastric cancer.

In a fourth aspect of the invention there is provided a method of diagnosis comprising the steps of a) isolating or providing a sample from a subject, b) contacting said sample with a peptide as described herein or a mixture of peptides as described herein, and c) detecting specific binding of antibodies in the sample to the peptide. The method is, in a preferred embodiment, used for detection of H. pylori infection or for the prediction of risk for gastric cancer.

In a fifth aspect of the invention there is provided a method for preventing gastric cancer in a subject comprising the steps of 1) carrying out diagnosis as described herein and 2) treating the H. pylori CagA+ infection in the subject. The method may comprise the steps of using the diagnosis method herein to determine that the subject has a Helicobacter pylori infection, and then treating the infection. The treatment may involve administering an antibiotic selected from a class of antibiotics the class of antibiotics selected from the group consisting of macrolides, beta-lactams, nitroimidazoles, tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones. The treatment may involve administering two antibiotics from said classes, where the two antibiotics are from different classes. The treatment may also involve administering a proton pump inhibitor to the subject, preferably in combination with antibiotics.

In a sixth aspect of the invention there is provided a method of detecting H. pylori CagA-binding antibodies in a sample from a subject, the method comprising contacting a biological sample with a peptide according to the first aspect of the invention and detecting binding of antibodies in the sample to the peptide. The sample may be a blood, serum, plasma sample or tissue sample, for example a gastric tissue sample.

In a seventh aspect of the invention there is provided a mixture of at least two peptides according to the first aspect of the invention. Such a mixture has the advantage that it can be used for detecting two or more different CagA-positive strains of H. pylori in an efficient manner. The mixtures can be in used the same manner as the peptides herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Identification of 18 different linear B-cell epitopes of CagA using peptide microarray analysis. The array score for each peptide (n=1172 peptides) is shown as a vertical bar at the start position in the CagA sequence (x-axis). Black bars are results of sera from H. pylori-infected individuals, and white bars are results of sera from H. pylori uninfected individuals. Importantly, many peptides shown reactivity also with serum from non-infected individuals (white bars).

FIG. 2 ROC AUC levels of all peptides tested from the 18 identified CagA epitopes (n=1144 peptides). FIG. 2 a: Results shown as box plot, including median, interquartile range and outliers. FIG. 2 b: Results for each individual peptide are shown, grouped by epitope. In both 2a and 2b, the AUC of a useless diagnostic (AUC=0.5) is indicated as a dashed horizontal line.

FIG. 3 ROC AUC scores for all peptides containing crucial sequence motifs. Data are shown as median, interquartile range and outliers. If only one peptide was tested, only the median is shown (horizontal line). The sequence motif designations are identical to the sequence names of Table 4:

BT_300: IINQKVTDKVDNLNQ (SEQ ID NO 13) (at least 12 out of 15 amino acids identical, n=298 peptides);

BT_301: EPIYA (SEQ ID NO 8) (n=270);

BT_302: EPIYAK (SEQ ID NO 9) (n=16);

BT_303: EPIYAQ (SEQ ID NO 10) (n=21);

BT_304: EPIYT (SEQ ID NO 11) (n=21);

BT_305: EPIYAT (SEQ ID NO 12) (n=196);

BT_306: FXLKRHX (SEQ ID NO 1) (n=246);

BT_307: FXLKKHX (SEQ ID NO 2) (n=34);

BT_308: FXLKQHX (SEQ ID NO 3) (n=1);

BT_309: YXLKRHX (SEQ ID NO 4) (n=3);

BT_310: IXLKRHX (SEQ ID NO 5) (n=1);

BT_311: FXLRRYX (SEQ ID NO 6) (n=1);

BT_312: FXLRRSX (SEQ ID NO 7) (n=7).

AUC=0.5 is indicated as a dashed horizontal line.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Sometimes it is referred to an interval of sequences herein. This refers to all the sequences in the interval, thus for example “SEQ ID NO 2 to SEQ ID 5” refers to SEQ ID NO, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Sequences are written using the standard one-letter annotation for amino acid residues. The amino acid residues are preferably connected with peptide bonds.

Some peptides herein may have sequence variability. Thus, certain sequences may specify a position in the sequence that can be any amino acid. This may be indicated with an X or, in the sequence listing, Xaa. The X or Xaa can be replaced with any amino acid, preferably any L-amino acid, including amino acids resulting from post translational modification, such as citrulline. The amino acid does not have to be a naturally occurring amino acid. Preferably the amino acid does not have a bulky side chain, as a bulky side chain could prevent antibody binding. A suitable molecular weight of the amino acid may be from 85 D to 300 D, more preferably from 89 D to 220 D.

In general, the peptide may comprise or consist of an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 330 The peptide may comprise of parts of the sequences of SEQ ID NO 32 to SEQ ID NO 330, for example 12, more preferred 13, even more preferred 14 and most preferred all 15 of the residues of SEQ ID NO 32 to SEQ ID NO 330. When the peptide comprises or consists of 12, 13, or 14 of the amino acids of SEQ ID NO 32-330, the other amino acid position may be replaced with any amino acid as described above for X and Xaa, while the remaining amino acids have the positions as in SEQ ID NO 32-330. In certain embodiments the amino acid may be replaced in a conserved manner, wherein, for example, a hydrophobic amino acid is replaced with a different hydrophobic amino acid, or where a polar amino acid is replaced with a different polar amino acid.

In some embodiments a peptide comprising or consisting of an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO 32 to SEQ ID NO 330 (table 2 and 3) may be preferred. In one embodiment a peptide comprising or consisting of one of SEQ ID NO 14 to SEQ ID NO 31 is used. In one embodiment a peptide comprising or consisting of one of SEQ ID NO 32 to SEQ ID NO 207 is used (Table 2). In one embodiment a peptide comprising or consisting of one of SEQ ID NO 208-330 is used (Table 3).

In a preferred embodiment a peptide comprising or consisting of one of SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 13 is used, for example SEQ ID NO 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 or 13 (Table 4). These sequences comprise the minimal binding regions of certain antibodies. In a preferred embodiment the peptide comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 12.

In an even more preferred embodiment the peptide comprises or consists of a sequence selected from SEQ ID No 1 to SEQ ID NO 7. These peptides have the advantage that the diagnostic accuracy is higher, since they elicit a strong antibody-response in a high percentage of individuals carrying a CagA+ H. pylori infection. These peptides (SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 7) all relate to the same epitopes (epitope 12 and 14), and around 95% of all CagA+ H. pylori isolates of the world carry at least one of these sequence variants. Furthermore, the peptides have common structural features in that:

-   -   They all have seven amino acid residues.     -   They all have a hydrophobic residue in the first position (F, Y         or I).     -   They all have x in the second position.     -   They all have an L in the third positon.     -   They all have K or R (positive side chains) in the fourth         position,     -   They all have an x in the seventh position.

Examples of useful peptides that comprise SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 7 include, but is not limited to, sequences SEQ ID NO 129 to SEQ ID NO 170, SEQ ID NO 186 to SEQ ID NO 187 and SEQ ID NO 266 to SEQ ID NO 279.

In an even more preferred embodiment the peptide comprises or consists of a sequence selected from SEQ ID NO 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, or even more preferred, one or more sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 or even more preferred SEQ ID NO 2, 3, 4 and 5. Examples of useful peptides that comprise these sequences are described in Table 2 and 3.

In one embodiment the peptide comprises or consist of the sequence of SEQ ID NO 13, or a sequence of twelve amino acid residues selected from that sequence, where the other three amino acid residues can be any amino acid, as described above. Useful amino acid sequences that comprise at least twelve amino acids from SEQ ID NO 13 include, but is not limited to, sequences SEQ ID No 52 to SEQ ID NO 67 and SEQ ID NO 235 to SEQ ID NO 256.

In one embodiment the peptide comprises or consists of the sequence of SEQ ID NO 153, or a sequence of 12, 13 or 14 amino acids selected from that sequence, where the other amino acid residues can be any amino acid, as described above.

The peptide preferably has a length of 25 amino acids or shorter, such as 20 or 15 amino acids. A shorter peptide may be desirable because it results in less unspecific binding (by an antibody) and therefore less background. However, a longer peptide may in some cases be desirable to allow for exposing the epitope to allow antibody binding without sterical hindrance, or for peptide folding. Thus, more preferably the peptide is 14 amino acid residues, more preferably 13 amino acid residues, even more preferably 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6 or 5 amino acid residues (6 applies to SEQ ID 8, 11, 9, 10 and 12 only, and 5 applies to SEQ ID NO 8 and 11 only).

Preferably the peptide binds specifically (in the immunological sense) and with high affinity to an antibody, preferably an antibody that also binds to the H. pylori CagA protein. An antibody-peptide interaction is said to exhibit “specific binding” or “preferential binding” in the immunological sense if it reacts or associates more frequently, more rapidly, with greater duration and/or with greater affinity with a particular cell or substance than it does with alternative cells or substances. An antibody “specifically binds” or “preferentially binds” to a peptide if it binds with greater affinity, avidity, more readily, and/or with greater duration than it binds to other substances. Binding can be determined with any suitable method. Binding can be determined by methods known in the art, for example ELISA, surface plasmon resonance, western blot or the other methods described herein (see below). Such methods can be used for determining suitable length or amino acid sequence of the peptide.

Preferably the use of the peptide has both a high diagnostic specificity and a high diagnostic sensitivity. In any diagnostic test, these two properties are dependent on what level is used as the cut-off for a positive test. To assess diagnostic accuracy independently of a set cut-off, a receiver operator characteristic curve (ROC curve) can be used. In an ROC curve, true positive rate (sensitivity) is plotted against false positive rate (1-specificity) as the cut-off is varied from 0 to infinity. The area under the ROC curve (ROC AUC) is then used to estimate the overall diagnostic accuracy. Preferably the use of the peptide has an ROC AUC of at least 0.55, for example an ROC AUC of at least, 0.60, 0.65, 0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 0.85, 0.90, 0.95, 0.96, 0.97, 0.98, 0.99 or an ROC AUC of 1.00. Preferably, the use of the peptide has ROC AUC of at least 0.85, and most preferably an ROC AUC of 1.

As used herein, the term “peptide” is used to mean peptides, proteins, fragments of proteins and the like, including peptidomimetic compounds. The term “peptidomimetic”, means a peptide-like molecule that has the activity of the peptide upon which it is structurally based, the activity being specific and high affinity binding to antibodies that bind to the CagA protein. Such peptidomimetics include chemically modified peptides, peptide-like molecules containing non-naturally occurring amino acids (see, for example, Goodman and Ro, Peptidomimetics for Drug Design, in “Burger's Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Discovery” Vol. 1 (ed. M. E. Wolff; John Wiley & Sons 1995), pages 803-861). A variety of peptidomimetics are known in the art including, for example, peptide-like molecules which contain a constrained amino acid. In certain embodiments circular peptides may be used.

The peptide may be an isolated peptide meaning a peptide in a form other than it occurs in nature, e.g. in a buffer, in a dry form awaiting reconstitution, as part of a kit, etc.

In some embodiments, the peptide is substantially purified meaning a peptide that is substantially free of other proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids and other biological materials with which it is naturally associated. For example, a substantially pure peptide can be at least about 60% of dry weight, preferably at least about 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of dry weight.

A peptide of the present invention can be in the form of a salt. Suitable acids and bases that are capable of forming salts with the peptides are well known to those of skill in the art, and include inorganic and organic acids and bases.

The peptide can be provided in a solution, for example an aqueous solution. Such a solution may comprise suitable buffers, salts, protease inhibitors, or other suitable components as is known in the art.

The peptide may be associated with (e.g. coupled, fused or linked to, directly or indirectly) one or more additional moieties as is known in the art. Non-limiting examples of such moieties include peptide or non-peptide molecules such as biotin, a poly his tag, GST, a FLAG-tag, or a linker or a spacer. The association may be a covalent or non-covalent bond. The association may be, for example, via a terminal cysteine residue or a chemically reactive linking agent, the biotin-avidin system or a poly-his tag. For example, the peptide may be linked with a peptide bond to a single biotin-conjugated lysine residue, in which the lysine is biotinylated via the epsilon amino groups on its side chain, such as the peptide example H-XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX(K(Biotin))-NH2, where X indicates the amino acids of the peptide.

The associated moiety may be used to attach or link the peptide, to improve purification, to enhance expression of the peptide in a host cell, to aid in detection, to stabilize the peptide, etc. In the case of a short peptide attached to a substrate, for example a solid phase, it may be desirable to use a linker or a spacer to ensure exposure of the peptide to antibodies so that the antibodies can bind.

The peptide may be associated with a substrate that immobilizes the peptide. The substrate may be, for example, a solid or semi-solid carrier, a solid phase, support or surface. The peptide may be immobilized on a solid support. Examples includes beads or wells in plates, such as microtiter plates, such as 96-well plates, and also include surfaces of lab-on-a-chip diagnostic or similar devices. The association can be covalent or non-covalent, and can be facilitated by a moiety associated with the peptide that enables covalent or non-covalent binding, such as a moiety that has a high affinity to a component attached to the carrier, solid phase, support or surface. For example, the biotin-avidin system can be used.

The peptides can be used for detecting H. pylori CagA-specific antibodies in a sample from a subject, the method comprising contacting a biological sample with a peptide as described herein and detecting binding of antibodies in the sample to the peptide. The peptide may be associated with a substrate that immobilizes the peptide, as described herein, for example attached to a solid support. The method may include incubation to allow binding, washing, and detection of antibodies as described herein. Methods for detecting binding of antibodies are described below and include for example ELISA.

The peptides can be used for diagnosis, in particular diagnosis of infection of H. pylori or gastric cancer. It is known that CagA H. pylori infection correlates with an increased risk for gastric cancer. Thus, the peptides can be used for assessing the risk of a subject developing gastric cancer. The risk of developing gastric cancer may include the risk of proceeding from not having gastric cancer to having gastric cancer of any stage, of proceeding from a benign disease state to a malign state or proceeding from a less malign state to a more malign state. Thus, the risk may include the risk of having gastric cancer or developing gastric cancer in the future. In a preferred embodiment the peptide is used for assessing the risk of a subject developing gastric cancer in the future. The peptides can also be used for diagnosis of other diseases that are associated with H. pylori infection, such as peptic ulcer disease, dyspepsia and immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP).

Diagnosis can be carried out using any suitable method. In a preferred method, antibodies in a sample from a subject are allowed to bind to a peptide, and binding is detected. The subject can be a human or an animal, preferably a human. Binding in vitro of antibodies from the subject to the peptide indicates that the immune system of the subject has generated antibodies against that particular peptide and thus that that peptide and hence that CagA H. pylori is present in the subject.

The method may comprise the steps of (1) isolating, from a subject, a sample of body fluid or tissue likely to contain antibodies or providing, in vitro, such a sample; (2) contacting the sample with a peptide, under conditions effective for the formation of a specific peptide-antibody complex (for specific binding of the peptide to the antibody), e.g., reacting or incubating the sample and a peptide; and (3) assaying the contacted (reacted) sample for the presence of an antibody-peptide reaction (for example determining the amount of an antibody-peptide complex). The method may involve one or more washing steps, as is known in the art. Steps 2 and 3 are preferably carried out in vitro, that is. using the sample after the sample has been isolated from the subject, in a sample previously isolated from a subject.

The sample can be any suitable sample for example a sample of blood, serum, plasma, saliva, mucosal secretion, ascites fluid, or similar bodily fluid, or tissue.

Antibody-response to the peptides can be detected by different immunological/serological methods. Suitable formats of detecting presence of the antibody using the peptides includes peptide micro arrays, ELISA, chromatography, western blot, lab-on-a chip formats, microbead-based single- or multiplex immunoassays etc.

Often these methods involve proving the peptide bound to stationary phase (such as the well of an ELISA plate or the surface of a microbead) and adding the sample to be analysed in the liquid phase, allowing antibodies to bind and then washing away unbound antibodies.

Antibody binding can be detected in vitro by using a labelled secondary antibody that binds to a specific type of human antibody for example IgG, IgA, IgG1, IgG2 or IgG3, IgG4. In ELISA, the secondary antibody is labelled with an enzyme, such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or alkaline phosphatase (AP). The secondary antibody is suitably from another species than human, for example from rabbit or goat.

Alternatively, a fluorescence label or radioactive label can be used.

A protocol for using the peptides in an ELISA can be easily optimized by a person skilled in the art with regard to which secondary antibody to use, its dilution, buffers, blocking solution, wash etc. An outline of an example of an ELISA protocol using plates can be as follows: Polystyrene microtiter plates are coated with optimal concentrations, as determined by checkerboard titrations, of the peptides of interest dissolved in PBS at room temperature overnight. After two washes with PBS, wells are blocked with 0.1% (wt/vol) bovine serum albumin-PBS at 37° C. for 30 min. Subsequent incubations are performed at room temperature, and plates are washed three times with PBS containing 0.05% Tween (PBS-Tween) between incubations. Samples of serum or other bodily fluids are added in duplicates or triplicates in initial dilutions of for example 1/10, and diluted for example in a three-fold dilution series. Control samples previously tested and found to have antibodies to the peptides are used as positive controls. Samples with known concentration of antibodies may be used for creating a standard curve. Wells to which only PBS-Tween are added are used as negative controls for determination of background values. After incubation at room temperature for 90 min, HRP-labeled rabbit anti-human IgA or IgG antibodies are added and incubated for 60 min. Plates are thereafter read in a spectrophotometer 20 min after addition of H₂O₂ and ortho-phenylene-diamine dihydrochloride in 0.1 M sodium citrate buffer, pH 4.5. The end point titers of each sample are determined as the reciprocal interpolated dilution giving an absorbance of for example 0.4 above background at 450 nm. Alternatively, as the final read-out value, the absorbance value can be used. The skilled person recognized that this ELISA protocol is an example only and many different variants and alterations of this protocol are possible.

Alternatively, in one embodiment, B-cells are isolated from the subject, and it is analysed if the cells are able to produce antibodies that bind to the peptide. This can be done by using the ELISPOT method, ALS (antibodies in lymphocyte secretions), or similar methods.

Diagnosis can also be carried out by detecting the presence of CagA protein in tissue sample from a patient using antibodies specific for a peptide selected from peptides comprising or consisting of SEQ ID NO 32-330, SEQ ID NO 1-7, in particular SEQ ID NO 2-5. The sample is preferably a sample of gastric tissue. Antibodies with the desired binding specificity can be generated by a person skilled in the art. The antibody can be a polyclonal or a monoclonal antibody, where monoclonal antibodies are preferred. The antibody can be used in any useful format to detect the protein, for example western blot, ELISA, immunohistochemistry, etc. The antibody can be used for the diagnostic methods herein.

The method may be such that it can result in two possible outcomes: H. pylori infection present or H. pylori infection absent. H. pylori infection can for example be determined on the basis of a signal cut off in the assay. There may also be an intermediate result: outcome uncertain that warrants further investigation or re-sampling or reanalysis of samples.

Once it has been established that a CagA+ H. pylori infection is present it may be useful to treat the H. pylori infection, for example in order to decrease the risk of the subject developing gastric cancer. Treatment can be done by methods known in the art, for example with the use of antibiotics. For different reasons, some being low availability of active antibiotics in the stomach as well as problems with antibiotic resistance, there are many different antibiotic treatment regimens for H. pylori infection, and the efficacy of these generally differ in different parts of the world. In general, the treatment regimens include at least two different antibiotics selected from the groups of macrolides, beta-lactams, nitroimidazoles, tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones, with or without the addition of bismuth subcitrate potassium, where one antibiotic is preferably selected from each group. One or more antibiotics may be administered in combination with a proton pump inhibitor. One treatment includes administration of the proton pump inhibitor omeprazole, and the antibiotics amoxicillin and clarithromycin for 7 to 14 days.

Thus, there is also provided a method for preventing gastric cancer comprising the steps of 1) carrying out diagnosis as described herein on a subject and 2) treating the H. pylori infection in the subject. Preferably treatment is made so that the subject is free of H. pylori infection.

Once it has been established that a CagA+ H. pylori infection is present it may also be useful to perform further investigations to assess the presence of gastric cancer of an early or advanced stage. This may be relevant for all patients, but is of special relevance in subjects known or suspected to otherwise have a high risk of gastric cancer, such as patients originating from countries with high gastric cancer risk, subjects who are smokers, and/or subjects whose close family members are known to have been diagnosed with gastric cancer. Such investigation can be made with gastroscopy, where the stomach lining is inspected to evaluate if gastric cancer is present. If a gastric tumour is observed, the tumour may be treated by endoscopic resection, if at an early stage, or by surgery, if at an advanced stage.

Alternatively, the method can be used as a follow-up to a routine gastroscopy investigation. If the endoscopy and/or the subsequent histopathology examination discover that there are precancerous conditions present in the stomach, for example by an elevated OLGA-score, the method can be used to inform further patient handling. This can be in the form of a recommendation for appropriate time-interval for follow-up gastroscopy. For example, if it has been established that a CagA+ H. pylori infection is present, it may be beneficial to perform a follow-up gastroscopy with a shorter time-interval than if there is no CagA+ H. pylori infection present.

The peptides can be synthesized by methods known in the art. The peptides can be obtained pure and in large quantities by means of organic synthesis, such as solid phase synthesis. Methods for peptide synthesis are well known in the art, for example using a peptide synthesis machine. Of course, the peptides may be ordered from a peptide synthesis company.

The peptides can also be of animal, plant, bacterial or virus origin. The peptide may then be purified from the organism, as is known in the art. The peptide can be produced using recombinant technology, for example using eukaryotic cells, bacterial cells, or virus expression systems. It is referred to Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, (Ausubel et al, Eds.,) John Wiley & Sons, NY (current edition) for details.

H. pylori displays some genetic diversity in the CagA sequence and it may be desirable to use a peptide or a group of peptides that identifies several strains. SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 7 represents such a group of peptides, since 95% of all CagA+ H. pylori isolates of the world carry at least one of these sequence variants. Thus, it may be useful to provide a mixture (a “cocktail”) of two or more peptides herein (SEQ ID NO 1-330). In one embodiment such a mixture comprises at least two, preferably three, more preferably four, more preferably five, more preferably six and more preferably seven peptides selected from peptides that comprise or consist of SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 13. In one embodiment the sequences are selected from SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 7. Preferred mixtures include SEQ ID NO 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, SEQ ID NO SEQ ID NO 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, SEQ ID NO 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 and SEQ ID NO 2, 3, 4 and 5. SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 5 are present in the so called CagA ABC, ABCC and ABCCC types, while SEQ ID NO 6 and SEQ ID NO 7 are only present in the ABD type. Thus, in one embodiment one sequence is selected from SEQ ID NO 1 to 5 and one sequence is selected from one of SEQ ID NO 6 and 7. The peptides of SEQ ID NO 6 and 7 may be particularly useful for diagnosis of H. pylori strains in Asia.

In another embodiment the peptides are selected from the peptides of SEQ ID NO 8 to SEQ ID NO 13.

Another useful way to detect more than one H. pylori strain is to use a peptide containing the motif EPIYA which is present in SEQ ID NO 8, 9, 10 and 12.

One or more peptides may be included in a kit. The kit may be used for diagnosis as described herein. A kit may comprise one or more peptides or mixtures thereof, binding buffer, and detection agents such as a secondary antibody. The kit can include a substrate that immobilizes the peptide, such as a solid support, such as microtiter plates, such as ELISA plates to which the peptide(s) of the invention have been pre-adsorbed, various diluents and buffers, labelled conjugates or other agents for the detection of specifically bound antigens or antibodies, such as secondary antibodies, and other signal-generating reagents, such as enzyme substrates, cofactors and chromogens. Other suitable components of a kit can easily be determined by one of skill in the art.

EXAMPLES Example 1

CagA-peptides of relevance were identified using a three-step procedure, using peptide array experiments. The antibody binding signature of the peptides was analyzed by incubating the arrays with pooled or individual serum samples from H. pylori-infected and uninfected individuals from a dyspepsia patient cohort. The H. pylori-infected individuals had an infection with known CagA-status (cagA-gene present/absent).

Serum samples were obtained from individuals in Managua, Nicaragua undergoing endoscopy due to dyspepsia, as previously described (Thorell et al, BMC Evol Biol 2016:16:53). Each of these patients had a known H. pylori infection status, and the genome sequences of their H. pylori isolates were available.

Published genomic sequences of H. pylori were obtained from NCBI. Available complete genomes (n=49) for H. pylori were downloaded from GenBank in August 2013. The experimental strains B8, Rif1, Rif2, UM298, and UM299 were removed and the remaining 44 complete strains were used for comparative genomics. The whole-genome sequenced isolates available in GenBank as of 2013 Nov. 1 were downloaded, and all isolates containing open reading frame information were used but for strains passaged in animals or experimentally derived strains. The previously published Nicaraguan genome sequences from the Sequence Read Archive database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sra) under accession number SRP045449 were also used.

In addition to these publically available genome sequences, sequences of H. pylori strains isolated in Australia were obtained from professor Barry J Marshall (University of Western Australia, WA, Australia).

To identify the deduced CagA protein sequences within the available genomes, a similarity search using blastp was performed using the CagA sequence from strain 26695 (NC_000915.1). In our collection of genome sequences, 245 strains/isolates were found to contain the cagA gene, and all deduced CagA protein sequences of these isolates were used for subsequent analysis.

Example 2

Antibody-responses to CagA-peptides were assayed using peptide array analysis. Medium-density arrays were printed using laser printing synthesis technology. On these chips, around 8 600 different 15-amino acid (15-mer) H. pylori peptides were spotted onto each chip. Thereafter, the chips were incubated with a 1/1000-dilution of patient serum, or a 1/1000-dilution of a pool of 10 different serum samples, followed by washing and subsequent incubation by fluorochrome-conjugated rabbit anti-human-IgG antibodies. Finally, fluorescence image scanning and digital image analysis was performed to detect antibody-binding to each of the peptides on the chip. Chip printing and antibody analysis was performed by the company PEPperPRINT (Heidelberg, Germany).

Example 3

High-density arrays were made using on-chip photolithographic synthesis. In these experiments, around 200 000 different 15-mer H. pylori peptides were spotted onto each chip. Thereafter, the chips were incubated with 1/1000-dilution of patient serum, or a 1/1000-dilution of a pool of 10 different serum samples, followed by washing and subsequent incubation by fluorochrome-conjugated rabbit anti-human-IgG or rabbit-anti-human-IgA antibodies. Finally, fluorescence image scanning and digital image analysis was performed to detect antibody-binding to each of the peptides on the chip. Chip printing and antibody analysis was performed by the company Schafer-n (Copenhagen, Denmark).

Example 4—Identification of B-cell Epitopes of CagA

The entire CagA-sequence was screened by assessing serum antibody-binding to overlapping 15-mer peptides and pools of serum samples. Medium-density arrays of example 2 spotted with peptides covering the entirety of the CagA-sequence, with a sequential overlap of 10 amino acids (n=234 peptides) were used. In follow-up experiments, high-density arrays of example 3 with 15-mer peptides covering the entirety of the CagA-sequence were used, but this time with a sequential overlap of 14 amino acids (n=1172 peptides). In both cases, the H. pylori strain 26695 was used as the source of the CagA peptide sequences. Antibody-binding to each peptide was assessed individually on the array, and two serum pools—one consisting of pooled sera from 10 H. pylori-infected (Hp+) individuals and the other consisting of sera from 10 uninfected (Hp−) individuals were used.

The antibody-binding of the Hp+ serum pool was compared to the binding of the Hp− pool. A linear B-cell epitope was defined as a stretch of at least four amino acids where the antibody-binding was at least 2× higher in the Hp+ group than in the Hp− group. In this way it was determined that H. pylori CagA contains 18 different linear B-cell epitopes, with an average length of 22 amino acids (Table 1 and FIG. 1). These epitopes are all useful for diagnosis of a CagA+ H. pylori-infection.

TABLE 1 SEQ Epi- ID tope Amino acid sequence Start¹ End¹ Length 14 CagA_ NPTKKNQYFSDFIDKSNDLINK   80  110 31 01 DNLIDVESS 15 CagA_ DPSKINTRSIRNFMENIIQPPI  134  158 25 02 PDD 16 CagA_ KKQSSDVKEAINQEPVPHVQPD  223  255 33 03 IATTTTDIQGL 17 CagA_ PEARDLLDERGNFSKFTLGDME  257  287 31 04 MLDVEGVAD 18 CagA_ KAQANSQKDEIFALINKEANRD  650  671 22 05 19 CagA_ SKDLKDFSKSFDEFKNGKNKDF  696  719 24 06 SK 20 CagA_ GINPEWISKVENLNAALNEFKN  735  758 24 07 GK 21 CagA_ INQKVTDKVDNLNQAVS  781  797 17 08 22 CagA_ FSDIKKELNEKFKNFNNNNN  870  889 20 09 23 CagA_ KNSTEPIYAKVNKKKTG  892  908 17 10 24 CagA_ YTQVAKKVNAKIDRLNQIAS  918  937 20 11 25 CagA_ AAGFPLKRHDKVDDLSK  945  961 17 12 26 CagA_ GLSASPEPIYATIDD  963  977 15 13 27 CagA_ GGPFPLKRHDKVDDLSK  979  995 17 14 28 CagA_ VSEAKAGFFGNLEQTID 1015 1031 17 15 29 CagA_ ESAKKVPASLSAKLDNYA 1047 1064 18 16 30 CagA_ GAINEKATGMLTQKNPEW 1078 1095 18 17 31 CagA_ SEYDKIGFNQKNMKDYSDSFKF 1114 1140 27 18 STKLN ¹Start and end positions refer to the amino acid positions in CagA of the strain 26695.

Example 5—Identification of 15-mer CagA Peptides with High Diagnostic Potential

Individual serum samples were assayed for antibody binding to the identified epitopes, to assess the frequency with which H. pylori-infected individuals having or lacking CagA+ H. pylori react with antibodies to the different epitopes. Since the 18 epitopes each spanned more than one 15-mer peptide, again overlapping peptides were used, this time with a 10- or 11-amino acid overlap between sequential peptides. Furthermore, since there is a considerable sequence diversity of CagA in different H. pylori isolates, sequence variants for each peptide were included. Thus, for each overlapping 15-mer peptide sequence from 26695 CagA, every available sequence variant of this peptide was also used, if such a sequence variant was found present at least twice in our database of 245 world-wide CagA sequences. In total, 1144 different CagA peptides and sequence variants within the 18 identified epitopes were assayed using high-density arrays. Each peptide was assayed with individual serum samples (n=48) from individuals with or without CagA+ H. pylori-infection, and from uninfected controls.

Epitopes with a high frequency of responding individuals and a strong antibody binding would be suitable to use for diagnosis of CagA+ H. pylori infection. A problem with previously known methods to assess CagA-antibodies has been the high number of false-positive individuals—i.e. H. pylori-non-infected individuals that comes out positive in the test. Therefore, those peptides that had a good discriminatory capacity were identified: a strong antibody-response in individuals with a CagA+ infection, but a minimal response in those with an infection lacking CagA, and in H. pylori-uninfected individuals.

The discriminatory capacity of peptides using ROC curves were assayed and the area under the curve (AUC) of the ROC curve (ROC AUC) was used as an estimation of diagnostic capacity.

The median ROC AUC of 1144 different peptides, including sequence variants, from the 18 identified CagA epitopes was 0.53 (FIG. 2A). Since an ROC AUC of 0.53 is very close to the diagnostic accuracy of a coin-toss (i.e. not useful for diagnosis), this highlights the problem of high false-positive rates for existing serology tests relying on antibody-responses to the entire CagA protein.

There was an uneven distribution of ROC AUC among different epitopes, with epitopes 3-4, 8-14, and 17-18 containing most of the peptides with a high diagnostic capacity (FIG. 2B).

Among the 1144 peptides, 176 CagA peptides with an ROC AUC higher than 0.7 were identified (Table 2). Each of these peptides can be used for diagnosis of H. pylori CagA+ infection.

TABLE 2 SEQ ID NO Name Sequence AUC Epitope  32 BT_001 DVKEAINQEPVPHVQ 0.72 CagA_03  33 BT_002 DVKEAINQEPLPHVQ 0.76  34 BT_003 DVKEAINQEPVPHIQ 0.74  35 BT_004 DVKEAINQEPVPNVQ 0.72  36 BT_005 TTTHIQGLPPESRDL 0.70  37 BT_006 TTTPIQGLPPESRDL 0.72  38 BT_007 TPTHIQGLPPEARDL 0.75  39 BT_008 QGLPPESRDLLDERG 0.73 CagA_04  40 BT_009 QGLPPEARDLLDERG 0.75  41 BT_010 QSLPPEARDLLDERG 0.78  42 BT_011 QGLPLEARDLLDERG 0.74  43 BT_012 ESRDLLDERGNFSKF 0.72  44 BT_013 LDERGNFFKFTLGDM 0.70  45 BT_014 NFSKFTLGDMEMLDV 0.76  46 BT_015 NFFKFTLGDVEMLDV 0.70  47 BT_016 NFSKFTLGDMNMLDV 0.81  48 BT_017 DFSKFTLGDMEMLDV 0.77  49 BT_018 NFFKFTLGDMEMLDV 0.75  50 BT_019 NFPKFTLGDMEMLDV 0.78  51 BT_020 NFSKFTLGDVEMLDV 0.76  52 BT_021 IKDVIINQEITDKVD 0.74 CagA_08  53 BT_022 IINQKITDKVDNLNQ 0.81  54 BT_023 IINQKVTDKVDNLNQ 0.83  55 BT_024 IINQKITDKVDDLNQ 0.79  56 BT_025 IINQKITDKVDNLSQ 0.78  57 BT_026 IINQKITDKVDNLSS 0.84  58 BT_027 IINQKVTDKVDDLNQ 0.79  59 BT_028 IINQEITDKVDNLNQ 0.76  60 BT_029 IINQKITDKADNLNQ 0.80  61 BT_030 IINQKVTDKVDNLSS 0.80  62 BT_031 IINQKITDKVDSLNQ 0.84  63 BT_032 IINQKITDKVENLNQ 0.73  64 BT_033 HINQQITDKVDNLNQ 0.79  65 BT_034 IFNQKITDKVDDLNQ 0.79  66 BT_035 ITDKVDNLNQAVSIA 0.70  67 BT_036 ITDKVDNLNQAVSEA 0.70  68 BT_037 TLAKNFSDIKKELNE 0.73 CagA_09  69 BT_038 TLSKNFSDIKKELNE 0.72  70 BT_039 NLAKNFSDIKKELNE 0.72  71 BT_040 NFSDIKKELNEKFKN 0.79  72 BT_041 NFSDIKKELNEKLFG 0.75  73 BT_042 KNSTEPIYAKVNKKK 0.84 CagA_10  74 BT_043 GLKNEPIYAKVNKKK 0.87  75 BT_044 KNNTEPIYAQVNKKK 0.80  76 BT_045 KNSGEPIYAQVNKKK 0.78  77 BT_046 KGPEEPIYAKVNKKK 0.83  78 BT_047 KNSAEPIYAQVNKKK 0.80  79 BT_048 KNSGEPIYAKVNKKK 0.84  80 BT_049 KNSAEPIYAKVNKKK 0.86  81 BT_050 ENSTEPIYAKVNKKK 0.91  82 BT_051 KNNEEPIYAQVNKKK 0.88  83 BT_052 KNNTEPIYAKVNKKK 0.86  84 BT_053 EPIYAKVNKKKTGQV 0.87  85 BT_054 EPIYAQVNKKKTGQV 0.85  86 BT_055 EPIYAKVNKKKAGQA 0.87  87 BT_056 EPIYAKVNKKKTGQA 0.87  88 BT_057 EPIYAKVNKKKAGQV 0.87  89 BT_058 EPIYAQVNKKKTGQA 0.83  90 BT_059 EPIYAQVNKKKAGQA 0.82  91 BT_060 EPIYAQVNKKKAGQV 0.83  92 BT_061 EPIYAKVNKKKTGEV 0.84  93 BT_062 EPIYAKVNKKKTEQA 0.87  94 BT_063 VASPEEPIYAQVAKK 0.78 CagA_11  95 BT_064 VASPEEPIYTQVAKK 0.78  96 BT_065 AASPEEPIYAQVAKK 0.79  97 BT_066 ATSPEEPIYAQVAKK 0.80  98 BT_067 AASLEEPIYAQVAKK 0.78  99 BT_068 AASPEEPIYTQVAKK 0.76 100 BT_069 AASHEEPIYAQVAKK 0.79 101 BT_070 VASLEEPIYTQVAKK 0.75 102 BT_071 LENSTEPIYTQVAKK 0.74 103 BT_072 ASPEEPVYTQVAKMV 0.81 104 BT_073 VASHEEPIYAQVAKK 0.79 105 BT_074 EEPIYAQVAKKVNAK 0.86 106 BT_075 EEPIYTQVAKKVNAK 0.79 107 BT_076 EEPIYAQVAKKVSAK 0.87 108 BT_077 EEPIYAQVAKKVTQK 0.86 109 BT_078 EEPIYAQVAKKVTKK 0.82 110 BT_079 EEPIYTQVAKKVTKK 0.77 111 BT_080 EEPIYTQVAKKVKAK 0.76 112 BT_081 EEPIYTQVAKKVTQK 0.80 113 BT_082 TEPIYTQVAKKVKAK 0.75 114 BT_083 EEPVYTQVAKMVTQK 0.77 115 BT_084 AQVAKKVNAKIDRLN 0.83 116 BT_085 AQVAKKVSAKIDQLN 0.81 117 BT_086 TQVAKKVNAKIDRLN 0.82 118 BT_087 AQVAKKVNAKIDQLN 0.83 119 BT_088 TQVAKKVNAKIDQLN 0.84 120 BT_089 TQVAKKVKAKIDQLN 0.73 121 BT_090 TQVAKKVTQKIDQLN 0.71 122 BT_091 KKVNAKIDRLNQIAS 0.84 123 BT_092 KKVNAKIDQLNQAAS 0.84 124 BT_093 KKVNAKIDQLNQIAS 0.85 125 BT_094 KKVNAKIDRLNQAAS 0.83 126 BT_095 KKVKAKIDQLNQAAS 0.78 127 BT_096 KKVNAKIDRLNQIAR 0.84 128 BT_097 KKVSAKIDQLNQAAS 0.81 129 BT_098 GVGQAAGFPLKRHDK 0.87 CagA_12/ 130 BT_099 GVGQAAGFPLKKHDK 0.84 CagA_14 131 BT_100 GVGQAAGFPLKKHGK 0.77 132 BT_101 GVGQAASFPLKRHDK 0.81 133 BT_102 GVGRAAGFPLKRHDK 0.87 134 BT_103 GVGQAVGFPLKRHDK 0.87 135 BT_104 GVGKAAGFPLKRHDK 0.89 136 BT_105 DVGQAANFLLKRHDK 0.78 137 BT_106 VVGQAVGFPLKRHDK 0.89 138 BT_107 GVGQAAGYPLKRHDK 0.88 139 BT_108 GVGQATGFPLKRHDK 0.87 140 BT_109 GVGQVAGFPLKKHGK 0.77 141 BT_110 VGQAGFPLKRHDKVD 0.91 142 BT_111 VGQAGFPLKRHDKVE 0.92 143 BT_112 VGQAGFPLKKHAKVE 0.82 144 BT_113 VNQAGFPLKRHDKVD 0.91 145 BT_114 VGQAGFLLKRHDKVD 0.88 146 BT_115 AGFPLKRHDKVDDLS 0.91 147 BT_116 GPFPLKRHDKVDDLS 0.91 148 BT_117 AGFPLKRHDKVEDLS 0.91 149 BT_118 AGFPLKKHDKVDDLS 0.87 150 BT_119 AGFPLKKHAKVEDLS 0.87 151 BT_120 AGFPLKKHDKVEDLS 0.86 152 BT_121 ASFPLKRHDKVDDLS 0.90 153 BT_122 EGFPLKRHDKVDDLS 0.94 154 BT_123 AGFPLKKHGKVDDLS 0.86 155 BT_124 AGFPLKRHDKVGDLS 0.93 156 BT_125 GSFPLKRHDKVEDLS 0.92 157 BT_126 AGYPLKRHDKVDDLS 0.91 158 BT_127 GSSPLKRHAKVDDLS 0.78 159 BT_128 TGFPLKRHDKVDDLS 0.92 160 BT_129 GPFPLKKHAKVDDLS 0.84 161 BT_130 LKRHDKVDDLSKVGL 0.84 162 BT_131 LKRHDKVDDLSKVGR 0.83 163 BT_132 LKRHDKVEDLSKVGR 0.76 164 BT_133 LKRHDKVEDLSKVGL 0.70 165 BT_134 LKRHDKVGDLSKVGL 0.73 166 BT_135 LKKHDKVEDLSKVGR 0.71 167 BT_136 LKKHDKVDDLSKVGR 0.81 168 BT_137 LKRHAKVDDLSKVGL 0.79 169 BT_138 LKKHDKVDDLSKVGL 0.81 170 BT_139 LKKHGKVDDLSKVGL 0.74 171 BT_140 RSVSPEPIYATIDDL 0.84 CagA_13 172 BT_141 LSASPEPIYATIDDL 0.82 173 BT_142 SASPEPIYATIDFDE 0.72 174 BT_143 LSANPEPIYATIDDL 0.81 175 BT_144 RLDSPEPIYATIDDL 0.82 176 BT_145 LSANHEPIYATIDDL 0.77 177 BT_146 NSDRSEPIYATIDDL 0.74 178 BT_147 LSASPEPIYATIDEL 0.82 179 BT_148 PEPIYATIDDLGGPF 0.81 180 BT_149 PEPIYATIDDLGGSF 0.79 181 BT_150 PEPIYATIDELGGPF 0.77 182 BT_151 SEPIYATIDDLGGPF 0.76 183 BT_152 HEPIYATIDDLDGPF 0.74 184 BT_153 HEPIYATIDDLGGPF 0.74 185 BT_154 EPIYATIDDLDGSSP 0.74 186 BT_155 IDDLGGPFPLKRHDK 0.91 CagA_14 187 BT_156 RHDKVDDLSKVGRSV 0.70 188 BT_157 DLNQAVSEAKIGHFD 0.71 CagA_15 189 BT_158 NGAINEKATGMLTQK 0.76 CagA_17 190 BT_159 NGTINEKATGMLTQK 0.71 191 BT_160 SGTINEKATGMLTQK 0.70 192 BT_161 TGTINEKATGMLTQK 0.74 193 BT_162 EKATGMLTQKNPEWL 0.72 194 BT_163 EKVTGMLTQKNPEWL 0.72 195 BT_164 LSEYDKIGFNQKNMK 0.74 CagA_18 196 BT_165 LSAYDKIGFNQKNMK 0.78 197 BT_166 LSDYDKIGFNQKNMK 0.81 198 BT_167 LSEYDNIGFNQKNMK 0.76 199 BT_168 LLEYDKIGFNQKNMK 0.73 200 BT_169 LSEYDKIGFSQKNMK 0.74 201 BT_170 LSEYDKIGFNQKSMK 0.84 202 BT_171 LSDYDKIGFNQKDMK 0.78 203 BT_172 KDYSDSFKFSTKLNN 0.73 204 BT_173 KDYSDSFKFSTKLSN 0.71 205 BT_174 KDYSDSFKFSTKLND 0.72 206 BT_175 KDYSDSFKFSTRLNN 0.75 207 BT_176 KDYSDSFKFSIKLSN 0.72

Example 6

Even a diagnostic with an ROC AUC of less than 0.7 may have a diagnostic capacity. In order to assess this, peptides to which a consistent fraction of CagA+ individuals had an antibody-response, but to which none of the individuals with a CagA-negative strain or lacking an H. pylori infection had such a response were identified. In this way 123 peptides with an ROC AUC of less than 0.7, for which the true-positive rate was more than 10% and the false-positive rate was 0%, were identified (Table 3). Each of these peptides can also be used for diagnosis of H. pylori CagA+ infection.

TABLE 3 SEQ ID NO Name Sequence AUC¹ FPR² TPR³ Epitope 208 BT_177 NKSNDLINKDALIDV 0.49 0 14 CagA_01 209 BT_178 TTTDIQGLPPESRDL 0.69 0 11 CagA_03 210 BT_179 STTHIQGLPPESRDL 0.66 0 11 211 BT_180 SFIFDKKQSSDVKEA 0.55 0 11 212 BT_181 SFVFDKKQSSDLKET 0.54 0 11 213 BT_182 SFAFDKKQSSDLKET 0.53 0 11 214 BT_183 ESRDLLDERGNFFKF 0.66 0 14 CagA_04 215 BT_184 EARDLLDERGDFSKF 0.63 0 14 216 BT_185 EARDLLDERGNFFKF 0.62 0 14 217 BT_186 LTPEARKLLEEAKKS 0.52 0 14 218 BT_187 NSQKDEIFALISKEA 0.65 0 11 CagA_05 219 BT_188 NSQKDEIFALINQET 0.65 0 11 220 BT_189 NSQKNEIFALINKEA 0.64 0 11 221 BT_190 NSQKDEIFKLINEGA 0.57 0 11 222 BT_191 NSQKDEILALINKEA 0.52 0 11 223 BT_192 VNKDLKDFSKSFDEF 0.58 0 14 CagA_06 224 BT_193 INKDLKDFSKSFDDF 0.58 0 14 225 BT_194 INKNLKDFSKSFDEF 0.58 0 14 226 BT_195 ISKDLKDFSKSFDEF 0.56 0 14 227 BT_196 KSFDGFKNGKNKDFS 0.56 0 11 228 BT_197 KIENLNVALNDFKNG 0.55 0 11 CagA_07 229 BT_198 EWISKIENLNVALND 0.54 0 11 230 BT_199 EWVSKVENLNAALNE 0.53 0 11 231 BT_200 EWISKVENLNAALND 0.53 0 11 232 BT_201 KVENLNAALNEFKNS 0.52 0 11 233 BT_202 KVENLNAALNEFKSG 0.50 0 11 234 BT_203 EWISKIENLNAALND 0.49 0 11 235 BT_204 IINQKITDKVGNLSS 0.69 0 18 CagA_08 236 BT_205 ITDKVDNLNQAVLVA 0.67 0 18 237 BT_206 KVDNLNQAVSEAKAT 0.67 0 22 238 BT_207 KVDNLNQAVSEAKLT 0.66 0 14 239 BT_208 VTDKVDNLNQAVSIA 0.65 0 14 240 BT_209 ITDKVDNLNQAVSMA 0.64 0 11 241 BT_210 VTDKVDNLNQEVSVA 0.63 0 11 242 BT_211 VTDKVDNLNQAVSMA 0.62 0 14 243 BT_212 ITDKVDNLNQAVSET 0.62 0 11 244 BT_213 VTDKVDNLNQAVSVA 0.61 0 14 245 BT_214 ITDKVDNLNQAVSVA 0.61 0 11 246 BT_215 KVDNLNQAVSIAKET 0.59 0 25 247 BT_216 KVDNLNQAVSVAKIT 0.59 0 25 248 BT_217 ITDKVDDLNQAVSVA 0.59 0 11 249 BT_218 KVDNLNQAVSIAKAT 0.57 0 25 250 BT_219 KVDNLSQAVSVAKIA 0.56 0 11 251 BT_220 KVDDLNQAVSVAKAT 0.56 0 14 252 BT_221 ITDKVDDLNQAVLVA 0.56 0 11 253 BT_222 ITNKVDDLNQAVSVA 0.52 0 11 254 BT_223 KVDNLSSAVSVAKAM 0.52 0 11 255 BT_224 VTDKVDDLNQAVSVA 0.52 0 11 256 BT_225 ITDKVDDLNQAVSMA 0.50 0 11 257 BT_226 TLSKNFSDIKKELNA 0.68 0 22 CagA_09 258 BT_227 TLTKKFSDIKKELNE 0.68 0 18 259 BT_228 NLTKNFSDIRKELNE 0.67 0 11 260 BT_229 TLTKNFSDIRKELNE 0.66 0 14 261 BT_230 NEKFKNFNNNNNGLK 0.55 0 14 262 BT_231 NSNGLKNSAEPIYAQ 0.62 0 11 CagA_10 263 BT_232 NNNGLKNSTEPIYAK 0.60 0 11 264 BT_233 TQVAKKVKAKIDRLD 0.67 0 11 CagA_11 265 BT_234 TQVAKKVTKKIDQLN 0.61 0 11 266 BT_235 RHDKVDDLSKIGRSV 0.69 0 14 CagA_12 267 BT_236 RHDKVDDLSKVGLSR 0.69 0 22 268 BT_237 KHAKVDDLSKVGRSV 0.68 0 14 269 BT_238 RHDKVDDLSKVGLSA 0.68 0 18 270 BT_239 LKRYAKVDDLSKVGL 0.68 0 25 271 BT_240 RHDKVDDLSKVGRSR 0.66 0 18 272 BT_241 LKRYAKVDDLSKAGR 0.66 0 22 273 BT_242 RYAKVDDLSKVGLSR 0.63 0 18 274 BT_243 KVDDLSKVGLSANHE 0.62 0 14 275 BT_244 KVDDLSKVGLSREQE 0.60 0 14 276 BT_245 KVDDLTKVGFSREQE 0.60 0 11 277 BT_246 KVDDLSKVGLSANPE 0.60 0 14 278 BT_247 VGQAGFPFKKHAKVE 0.59 0 11 279 BT_248 GSSPLKRYAKVDDLS 0.56 0 11 280 BT_249 PEPIYATIDFDDANQ 0.68 0 18 CagA_13 281 BT_250 PEPIYATIDFDEANQ 0.61 0 18 282 BT_251 AVSEAKAGFFGNLEQ 0.66 0 14 CagA_15 283 BT_252 KAGFFGNLEQTIDKL 0.64 0 18 284 BT_253 AVSEAKAGFFGNLER 0.64 0 14 285 BT_254 KAGFFGNLEQTIGNL 0.64 0 18 286 BT_255 KVGFFGNLEQTIDKL 0.63 0 11 287 BT_256 AVSEAKVGFFGNLEQ 0.63 0 11 288 BT_257 KAGFFGNLEQTIDNL 0.63 0 22 289 BT_258 KAGFFGNLEQTINNL 0.63 0 14 290 BT_259 KAGYFGNLEQTIDNL 0.63 0 14 291 BT_260 KAGFFGNLERTIDKL 0.62 0 25 292 BT_261 AVSEAKSGFFGNLEQ 0.62 0 14 293 BT_262 KAGFFGNLEQTMDRL 0.61 0 18 294 BT_263 KAGYFGNLEQTIDKL 0.61 0 25 295 BT_264 KAGFFGNLERTIDNL 0.61 0 18 296 BT_265 AVSEAKAGYFGNLEQ 0.54 0 14 297 BT_266 KVPDSLSAKLDNYAT 0.62 0 14 CagA_16 298 BT_267 MNLWAESAKKVPAGL 0.58 0 11 299 BT_268 VNLWAESAKKVPVSL 0.57 0 14 300 BT_269 KVPASLLEKLDNYAT 0.56 0 18 301 BT_270 MNLWAESAKKVPASL 0.55 0 11 302 BT_271 VNLWAENAKKLPASL 0.54 0 11 303 BT_272 VESAKQVPAGLQAKL 0.48 0 11 304 BT_273 NGGINEKATGMLTQK 0.69 0 14 CagA_17 305 BT_274 EKAIGMLTQKNPEWL 0.66 0 11 306 BT_275 EKATGVLTQKNPEWL 0.63 0 11 307 BT_276 EKATGMLMQKNPEWL 0.58 0 11 308 BT_277 KDYSDSFKFSTKLNS 0.69 0 37 CagA_18 309 BT_278 GSVPLSAYDKIGFNQ 0.69 0 18 310 BT_279 GSVSLSEYDKIGFNQ 0.69 0 22 311 BT_280 GSTHLSEYDKIGFNQ 0.67 0 18 312 BT_281 LSEYDNIGFSQKNMK 0.65 0 11 313 BT_282 GSAHLSEYDKIGFNQ 0.64 0 18 314 BT_283 GSAPLSDYDKIGFNQ 0.64 0 18 315 BT_284 DSFKFSTKLNSAIKD 0.64 0 18 316 BT_285 GSVPLSEYDKIGFNQ 0.64 0 22 317 BT_286 GSAPLSEYDNIGFSQ 0.63 0 11 318 BT_287 GSAPLSEYDKIGFNQ 0.62 0 22 319 BT_288 GSAPLSAYDKIGFNQ 0.62 0 22 320 BT_289 DSFKFSTKLNDAVKD 0.62 0 18 321 BT_290 DSFKFSTKLNNAVKN 0.61 0 14 322 BT_291 GSVPLSEYDNIGFNQ 0.61 0 22 323 BT_292 DSFKFSTKLNNAVKD 0.61 0 14 324 BT_293 DSFKFSTKLSNAVKN 0.61 0 11 325 BT_294 DSFKFSTRLNNAVKD 0.60 0 11 326 BT_295 GSTPLSDYDKIGFNQ 0.60 0 22 327 BT_296 DSFKFSTELNNAVKD 0.60 0 11 328 BT_297 GSTPLSEYDKIGFNQ 0.59 0 22 329 BT_298 DSFKFSTKLSNAVKD 0.57 0 11 330 BT_299 DSFKFSTKSNNAVKD 0.55 0 14 ¹AUC - Area under the curve for the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve. ²FPR - False-positive rate (%) based on a cut-off set to the 95th percentile of all the peptides tested (n = 1144 peptides). ³TPR - True-positive rate (%) based on a cut-off set to the 95th percentile of all the peptides tested (n = 1144 peptides).

Example 7—Identification of Crucial Amino-Acid Sequences for Diagnosing a CagA+ H. pylori Infection

A detailed mapping of B-cell epitopes of H. pylori CagA within peptides identified as highly diagnostic was performed. Mapping was performed using high-density peptide arrays. Individual serum samples (n=48) were tested for antibody-binding to sequence variants of each of the selected peptides. This was done in order to pin-point amino acid positions in each peptide that contributed to antibody-binding, and therefore would be crucial to include in a diagnostic application.

We selected the peptides with the highest diagnostic potential, and for each of the selected peptides we created 300 different sequence variants. This was done by so called complete single-residue substitution. This means that for each of the 15 amino-acid positions of each peptide, we created 20 different sequence variants that only differed in sequence in that position; in that position, the 20 variants had one each of the 20 different common protein amino acids. Since there were 20 different sequence variants per amino acid position, and the peptides were of 15 amino acids length, there were in total 300 different sequence variants. The procedure has been described previously (Hansen et al, PLOS One 2013:8 (7):e68902). This analysis determined if a given residue position within the peptide is unimportant for binding of the peptide to the antibody, i.e. if the amino acid residues in the native sequence can be freely substituted without affecting binding.

In this way all variants of the selected peptides were tested for antibody-binding by each of the 48 serum samples. We observed which peptide variants obtained significantly/substantially lower ROC AUC-scores than the original peptide, and based on this information we could identify the sequence motifs that were crucial for discriminatory capacity of CagA+ H. pylori infection.

It was revealed that the crucial parts of the peptides span between 5-6 amino acids, and that there is redundancy in some of the positions of these crucial sequences. The crucial sequences for certain epitopes are shown in Table 4, and their ROC AUC levels in FIG. 3. The peptides of table 4 are particularly useful for diagnosis and treatment of H. pylori infection and gastric cancer, including prevention of cancer, since they are highly specific.

TABLE 4 SEQ ID NO Name Sequence¹ AUC² n³ Epitope(s) 13 BT_300 IINQKVTD 0.80 (0.77-0.82) 298 CagA_08 KVDNLNQ⁴  8 BT_301 EPIYA 0.70 (0.66-0.73) 283 CagA_10_ 11_13  9 BT_302 EPIYAK 0.86 (0.84-0.87)  16 CagA_10 10 BT_303 EPIYAQ 0.80 (0.78-0.83)  21 CagA_10_11 11 BT_304 EPIYT 0.75 (0.73-0.78)  21 CagA_11 12 BT_305 EPIYAT 0.70 (0.66-0.72) 211 CagA_13  1 BT_306 FXLKRHX 0.90 (0.87-0.91) 275 CagA_12_14  2 BT_307 FXLKKHX 0.85 (0.84-0.87)  34  3 BT_308 FXLKQHX 0.84 N.A.   1  4 BT_309 YXLKRHX 0.91 (0.89-0.91)   3  5 BT_310 IXLKRHX 0.87 N.A.   1  6 BT_311 FXLRRYX 0.49 N.A.   1  7 BT_312 FXLRRSX 0.47 (0.44-0.51)   7 ¹An “X” means any one amino acid as described herein. ²AUC is expressed as median, with interquartile range in brackets (N.A = not applicable). ³Number of different 15-mer peptide sequences tested. ⁴The AUC data of Seq ID NO 13 includes sequence variants of sequence 13. The data includes all peptides with an exact match in at least 12 out of the 15 amino acids. 

1. A peptide comprising an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO 7, said peptide consisting of at most 25 amino acids.
 2. The peptide according to claim 1 where the sequence is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO 2-7.
 3. A peptide according to claim 1 or 2 for use in diagnosis.
 4. A peptide for use in diagnosis according to claim 3 where the diagnosis is diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori infection or prediction of the risk for gastric cancer.
 5. The peptide for use in diagnosis according to claim 3 or 4 where the peptide is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO 2 to SEQ ID NO
 5. 6. The peptide for use in diagnosis according to any one of claims 3-5 where the peptide comprises at most ten amino acids.
 7. The peptide for use in diagnosis according to any one of claims 3-5 where the peptide consists of an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NO 1 to SEQ ID NO
 7. 8. A kit comprising a peptide according to any one of claims 1 to
 7. 9. A method of diagnosis comprising the steps of a) providing a sample from a subject, b) contacting said sample with a peptide according to any of claims 1 to 7, c) detecting specific binding of antibodies in the sample to the peptide.
 10. The method according to claim 9 where the method is used for detection of Helicobacter pylori infection or for the prediction of risk for gastric cancer.
 11. The method according to claim 9 or 10 where the peptide is selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO 2 to SEQ ID NO
 5. 12. A method for prevention of gastric cancer comprising using the diagnosis method of any one of claims 9 to 11 to determine that the subject has a Helicobacter pylori infection, and then treating the infection.
 13. The method of claim 12 where the treatment involves administering at least two antibiotics selected from the group consisting of macrolides, beta-lactams, nitroimidazoles, tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones.
 14. The method of claim 13 where the treatment involves administration of a proton pump inhibitor to the subject.
 15. A method of detecting H. pylori CagA-binding antibodies in a sample from a subject, the method comprising contacting a biological sample with a peptide of claim 1 or 2 and detecting binding of antibodies in the sample to the peptide.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the sample is a blood, serum, plasma or gastric tissue sample. 